Nvq 2 Health and Social Essay

Personal centred approach is when carers take interest in what service users prefer and use this when providing care. Also, its thinking about the service users choices, right, protecting their privacy and dignity, supporting their independence and working in partnership with them and other colleagues to make the care better. 2. Person centre approach enables individuals with dementia to be involved in their own care and support because carers can talk to the resident and find out how they prefer things to be done, how they like to be spoken to and cared for so staff can give the best care in the way that suits them. Outcome 2 1.Information about personality and life history can be used to support an individual to live well with dementia because if they have a good written history it can help with communication, knowing what the person likes and dislikes if they are unable to tell you. Having a good life history can be used to support and live well because it helps people know more about someone, and look after them better meaning knowing how the like things. Outcome 3 1. All these things make up personal centred approach. Before giving someone care or help with something if we think about all these things and what the service user prefers we can provide the best possible care for them. Also, if we’re providing good care and the service user is happy then they start to feel comfortable and will tell us more about their choices and preferences so we’re able to provide our care at a even higher standard. link

Cardiovascular Physiology And Hypertension Health And Social Care Essay

High blood pressure is a major contributing hazard factor for cardiovascular diseases and decease responsible for more than any other biomedical hazard factors worldwide. [ 1 ] The hazard factors associated with high blood pressure include shot, coronary bosom disease, chronic bosom failure, chronic kidney disease and their patterned advance. [ 1 ] The hazards is a consequence of the structural harm to the bosom, which is holding to work harder as a pump to the demand of the organic structure, big and little blood vass and the variety meats they supply. [ 2 ] Approximately 29 % of the Australian population have high blood pressure. [ 2 ] There are many hazard factors that may hold attributed to high blood pressure. They include familial factors, household history, race, age, gender, lifestyle and presence of other diseases or unwellness. To accomplish a decrease in blood force per unit area and cardiovascular hazards, a lifestyle alteration that include regular exercising, weight los t, decrease in intoxicant consumption, surcease of smoke and eating healthier is recommended to patients enduring from high blood pressure. [ 2 ] In some instances, antihypertensive drugs are used in combination with lifestyle alterations to assist cut down blood force per unit area. This is due to the presence of blood force per unit area sensitive conditions such as shot, diabetes or chronic kidney disease. [ 1 ] High blood pressure is classified as holding an elevated force per unit area in the blood ‘s systolic and diastolic degree at remainder. [ 3 ] Therefore the blood force per unit area that is pumping in the arterial wall is higher than normal due to emphasize and tenseness that is applied to the arterias. The blood force per unit area would match with increasing the force per unit area doing the blood force per unit area addition every bit good. Hypertension is normally diagnosed one time blood systolic force per unit area is above 140mmHg and diastolic force per unit area greater than 90mmHg. For normal patients, blood force per unit area is about 120mmHg for systolic force per unit area and 80mmHg for diastolic force per unit area. [ 3 ] With high blood pressure, it could be classified as a soundless slayer as there are no symptoms associated with the disease. [ 4 ] So unless high blood pressure is terrible at that place would be no symptoms developing for diagnosing to be det ected at a glimpse. [ 3 ] High blood pressure can be classified into primary or indispensable and secondary high blood pressure. Primary high blood pressure is really common imputing to 85-95 % in most instances of high blood pressure. [ 3 ] Primary high blood pressure is a multifactorial disease where is no individual caused related to it. [ 4 ] Several factors may play a function and with the combined effects contributes to high blood pressure. These could be seen in the mosaic theory in Figure 2 below. As seen there are many factors that may assist lend to primary high blood pressure. Table 1. Categorization of the different phases of Hypertension. [ 1 ] Calciferol: School WorkYear 3 Sem 1CardioHypertensionComplex of BP.jpg Figure 1. Page ‘s Mosaic Theory of Hypertension. [ 3 ] Approximately 30 % of the instances of primary high blood pressure are attributed by familial factors. [ 4 ] The incidence of high blood pressure is greater in African Americans than that to Caucasians or Asians. [ 4 ] Persons who have one or two parents with high blood pressure, is twice more likely than the normal population to hold high blood pressure. [ 4 ] The bulk of primary high blood pressure patients have abnormalcy to their arterias, hence an increased opposition due to stiffness or miss of snap in the arterias is doing the elevated blood force per unit area. [ 4 ] As we age, the snap of the arterias is bit by bit lost and will go stiff. This is why the hazards of high blood pressure is greater in people who are 50 old ages or older. [ 4 ] The increased in opposition causes the bosom muscles to work harder to pump the blood through the blood vass, therefore the strain on the bosom lead to abnormalcies in the hypertrophied size of bosom musculuss on the left ventricle. [ 4 ] Secondary high blood pressure contributes 5 % to the overall instances of high blood pressure. [ 4 ] They are known every bit secondary as there is basically a specific upset in some peculiar organ or blood vas, such as the kidney, adrenal secretory organ or aortal arteria that is doing the lift in blood force per unit area. [ 4 ] Exercise is an act of the organic structure to exercise itself by physical motion which could include walking, running, swimming, or any sort of endurance and aerophilic preparation. It is recommended that single should undergo visible radiation to chair physical exercising at least one time every twenty-four hours for at least 30 to 45 proceedingss. [ 6 ] Physical exercising is a good manner to battle high blood pressure. It is implemented in patients with the prescribed antihypertensive drugs so that maybe the opportunity of decrease in blood force per unit area could cut down or get rid of the demand for antihypertensive drugs. [ 1 ] When the organic structure is undergoing mechanical work such as exercise, the shear or stretch force stimulated will originate the remodelling of the assorted tissues such as the cardiac and skeletal musculuss and blood vass. [ 7 ] Stretching of these musculuss is caused by the force per unit area overload which cause the bosom to undergo hypertrophy. [ 7 ] Therefore cardiomyocytes will spread out by adding sarcomeres in the skeletal musculuss which will increase the contractile force of the single cells. [ 7 ] Exercise is a good manner to advance remodelling of the bosom. [ 7 ] They can bring forth hypertrophy and distend the cardiomyocytes in the needful skeletal musculuss. The bosom will hold to pump harder to run into the O demand applied by the metabolic work. Therefore the emphasis caused on the bosom will take to hypertrophy. Normally the force per unit area overload increases the mechanical emphasis on myocardium which hypertrophy will seek to cut down this emphasis by incre asing the thickness of the ventricle wall. [ 7 ] But due to chronic high blood pressure the natural remodelling of the bosom may really take to bosom failure. The remodelling of the bosom caused by high blood pressure will ensue in left ventricular hypertrophy. Thickening of the left ventricular wall will happen due to emphasize initiated and cut down the chamber volume by the addition in growing of cardiomyocytes. [ 7 ] As new cardiomyocytes is generated, old 1s are besides triggered for programmed cell death and may take to fibrosis. Therefore this will take to an addition in the volume of the bosom Chamberss which is seen in the increased thickness of the wall and will diminish the contractile force map. The fibrosis caused by high blood pressure reduces the organisation in bosom musculus and increase the stiffness of the myocardium which reduces the filling of the bosom during diastole. [ 7 ] Therefore the stiffening and loss of contractility is an inauspicious consequence of ex erting in chronic hypertensive patients. Peripheral opposition is besides reduced during exercising. This is caused by the vasoconstriction in some countries of the organic structure that may non be in usage such as the intestine and visceral parts and diverts the blood off from these countries. [ 8 ] Contracting musculuss will do vasodilatation to distend the arteriolas in these musculuss and lessening entire peripheral opposition and allows the bosom to pump more blood. So exercising will do the entire peripheral opposition to cut down and allows the bosom to pump more blood to provide the O demand. Even though entire peripheral opposition is reduced, exercising will somewhat increase the arterial force per unit area. This is caused by the demand of cardiac end product in the catching musculuss. The demand is still needed to these countries so no count how much vasodilatation is happening to cut down the entire peripheral opposition, cardiac end product is still needed to pump blood to needed countries. This will do the arterial force per unit area to increase in exercising as the demand in undertaking musculuss increases with the strength of the exercising. [ 8 ] The bosom is able to provide a stable flow of blood to the organic structure but under utmost and demand addition in metabolic work, the bosom is able to increase its shot volume and consequence in the addition of the volume of the ventricles. [ 8 ] In exercising since the musculuss is being made to work excess hard, it will heighten the venous return which will do an addition in stroke volume. As exercising is continued the bosom rate will besides be increasing which will ensue in addition of cardiac end product due to oxygen demand in the active musculuss during exercising. [ 8 ] Lifestyle alterations are recommended for all patients with high blood pressure regardless of drugs being taken. Changes made in life style are to accomplish a decrease in blood force per unit area in patients. These alterations could include decrease in Na consumption, increasing healthy feeding wonts and nutritionary consumption, a diet consisting of low saturated fat content, keeping a healthy weight scope, surcease of smoke, cut down intoxicant ingestion and most of all, at least some signifier of physical activity. Salt contains Na and chloride which helps to keep the right volume of blood and tissue fluids in the organic structure. Kidneies are the chief regulators of Na degrees in the organic structure. Therefore sodium consumption will play a function in the fluid keeping as the concentration of sodium addition will increase H2O loss in the organic structure and increase the blood force per unit area degrees. The extent of decrease is dependent on your age and blood force per unit area. Sodium decrease may non take down blood force per unit area in younger people with low or normal blood force per unit area. [ 5 ] A individual ‘s weight is by and large associated with their cholesterin degree. Peoples who are fleshy tend to hold high cholesterin and elevated blood force per unit area. Low-density lipoproteins ( LDLs ) are able to traverse the endothelial bed and enter the bomber endothelial infinite. Therefore the rate of entry of LDLs into the arterial wall is increased and do accretion in the blood vass. LDLs are modified and promote macrophage to the countries. However, macrophage has receptors that recognize the LDLs and are able to roll up in the macrophage and are converted to froth cells. These cells are the causes of coronary artery disease. Foam cells are able to show growing factors and proteases that lead to cell proliferation and matrix being degraded which will take to tear of the atherosclerotic pestilence. [ 9 ] Figure 2. The formation of froth cells via macrophage oxidizing LDLs. [ 9 ] Cigarettes smoke contain many chemicals including nicotine and C monoxide. [ 5 ] Smoking causes a build-up of plaques which may take to damage in the interior bed of the arterias making a coronary thrombosis. It besides contributes to the development and acceleration of coronary artery disease. Therefore cholesterin is able to come in the arteria walls more quickly and would do blood coagulum to happen in the arterias. [ 5 ] This will take to bosom onslaughts as the entire peripheral opposition is increased with coronary artery disease and obstruction of blood vass in the arterias. Alcohol ingestion should besides be reduced as it affects the pituitary secretory organ in stamp downing the production of anti-diuretics endocrine. This will do failure in the kidneys to resorb equal sum of H2O and lead to desiccation of the organic structure. This will do lift in blood force per unit area. [ 10 ] In a survey â€Å" Beneficial effects of physical exercising on high blood pressure and cardiovascular inauspicious remodeling of diet-induced corpulent rats † it is found that the exercising corpulent rats had a major decrease after 4 hebdomads of exerting holding a difference of 25 % lessening at the terminal of the experiment. [ 11 ] The corpulent rats showed cardiomyocyte hypertrophy which is reduced after exerting. Exercise had besides eased the loss of left ventricular cardiomyocytes. The wall thickness of the aorta and common carotid arterias was significantly smaller in exercised corpulent rats than the sedentary obese rats which lead to improved peripheral opposition arterias of the corpulent rats. [ 11 ] In another survey â€Å" The good consequence of regular endurance exercising preparation on blood force per unit area and quality of life in patients with high blood pressure † shows the important of exerting in the decrease of blood force per unit area. The survey shows that by exerting you can cut down systolic blood force per unit area by 13.1mmHg and diastolic blood force per unit area by 6.3mmHg. [ 12 ] There is clear and evidentiary information sing the decrease of blood force per unit area in mild to chair high blood pressure patients but the conflicting issues arises with patients who are in the class 3 phase of high blood pressure ( SBP & gt ; 180mmHg, DBP & gt ; 110mmHg ) known as chronic high blood pressure. Many surveies have proven that by exerting a decrease in blood force per unit area is the consequence. Exercising will originate hypertrophy to heighten the capacity of the bosom to pump to run into the O demand of the organic structure. In this phenomenon the bosom is able to of course cut down the emphasis by increasing the thickness of the ventricle wall. From the survey on the induced corpulent rats, the wall thickness of the aorta and carotid arterias were smaller in the exercised corpulent rats. For patients with chronic high blood pressure, exercising is non recommended as this may originate hypertrophy and may do bosom failure in the patient. As blood force per uni t area is well high in chronic patients, the lift in blood force per unit area with exercising may do the bosom to neglect and the O demand will non be met. Therefore the demand for antihypertensive drug is introduced with these patients alternatively. Drugs that could be used include water pills, I?-Blockers, Ca2+ Channel Blockers, ACE Inhibitors, Angiotensin II receptor adversary and I ±-adrenoceptor adversary. Exercise is proven to cut down blood force per unit area in hypertensive patients by undergoing hypertrophy which produces cardiovascular versions that will increase work capacity, endurance and vascular map. It can besides increase the strength of musculuss and cut down cardiovascular hazards. The instance surveies have statistically showed the significance of decrease in blood force per unit area by cardiac remodelling of the bosom. Patients with grade 3 high blood pressure will necessitate to be treated with antihypertensive drugs every bit good as undergoing visible radiation exercisings. For the effectual decrease in blood force per unit area, all patients are recommended to alter their life style and include exercising as portion of their day-to-day modus operandi.

Develop a well supported suggestion for an international market entry Essay

Develop a well supported suggestion for an international market entry strategy for a company (MNE) of your choice. Support the a - Essay Example There are a number of factors that has influenced the firm to opt for internationalization. These factors include both pull and push factors. The push factors include the saturated local market, matured economy, high capital gain from the local market (UK market). The pull factors would include the degree of foreign market attractiveness, opportunity for quality production at a relatively low cost and the opportunity to attain economies of scale. Hereby it is to be added that all the pull factors have been mentioned by keeping China in the focal point of interest as the country is the target market. The details would be provided in the latter half of the study (Czinzota, Ronkainen, Moffett, Marinova and Marinov, 2009, pp. 423-429). Justifying the choice of the host country PESTEL Analysis Political Factors: During the early 80’s China had a closed economic policy and there was very little encouragement on the part of the government in terms of the investments to be made by the international companies. But things changed as the government focused on the educational policies which lead to an increase in number of the skilled workers in the country. But, there were not enough job opportunities for the skilled workers (Henry, 2008, p. 89). ... As far as retail industry is concerned, the government is looking to shut down the traditional wet shops to promote organized retailing (Kolb, 2008, p. 92). The main objective is to create a network of chain of retail markets in the eastern provinces of the country. The efforts of the government are also paying off as retail has become of the most important industries in the country. As on 2009, the country had total of thirty five retailers out of the top fifty retailers in the world. The ministry of commerce provided approval to more than one thousand retailers in the country with a contractual FDI of $1.9 billion in the year 2005 (Brown, 2009, p. 209). Economic Factors: Due to the new revised policies the country witnessed a rise in the GDP. The GDP in the year 2009 was 335,353 million. This meant that there had been a 7% rise as compared to the last year. Another noticeable factor has been the per capita rise in the net income of the rural households of the country which was 5153 Yuan at the end of 2009. This meant an overall 8.5% increase. The rise in the per capita income acted as the boost towards disposable income of the people which witnessed a percentage growth by 9.8%. It clearly shows the fast paced economic progress of the country. Social Factors: Tesco’s the main focal point in the social factors would be the cross cultural difference of the people of the country. The Chinese culture is diverse and is totally different from that of the Western culture. However the shifts in the economy of the country led to a rise in the disposable income of the people of the country and as a result the mindset and the lifestyle of the people improved. The shift in the consumer behavior is a welcoming sign for the

Deaf reading reaction Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Deaf reading reaction - Coursework Example As such, I get to understand the challenges that those with hearing abilities suffer when it comes to acquiring knowledge and skills in various fields. Despite the conventional belief that deaf education could have been developed long ago in the United States, I was surprised to learn from the article that this is not the case. The author states that policy makers in the developed countries are still struggling to come to terms with provision of deaf education â€Å"†¦.in the New World were still struggling to come to terms with views about deaf children and learning† (Lang 13). This is contrary to the general belief that deaf education could be highly developed in most developed countries due to advancement in technology in these countries. The article, moreover, brings out the weaknesses that exist in the current education curriculum. Here, the author says that the curriculum focus has mainly been â€Å"on active learning and articulation across grades† (Lang 16). This hence leaves out the special needs of the deaf. Furthermore, the article offers vital information by evaluating the critical roles played by parents in the provision of deaf education. The child-parent relationship greatly enhances the learning process. More so, the article examines the achievements made, so far, in the provision of deaf education. Apparently, despite all the challenges encountered, so much has been achieved since the realization of the need to offer special education to the deaf. In conclusion, I would recommend policy makers in the education sector to read the article as it provides useful insights on the growth of deaf education. It is also imperative for researchers to use the article as it lays a firm foundation on future studies on deaf

Zoology. Mitosis and biglight phases of embryological development Essay

Zoology. Mitosis and biglight phases of embryological development - Essay Example Mitosis is divided into these following phases: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Prophase is when the chromatin liquefies into a structure known as a chromosome, which allows the chromatin to become visible. Prometaphase is what happens when the nuclear envelope breaks itself into smaller fragments and then disappears entirely. Metaphase takes place when the chromosomes are situated in the center of the cell prior to splitting into the two daughter cell sets. Anaphase is when the chromosomes separate within the eukaryotic cell. The last phase, telophase, is when the stages and effects of prophase and prometaphase are reversed within the eukaryotic cell. Meiosis takes place when the chromosomes are split into halves, and is an essential part of sexual reproduction. Meiosis has many more complex stages then mitosis, as seen in the following: meiosis 1, prophase 1 (which consists of these further stages: leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis, and synchronous processes), metaphase 1, anaphase 1, telophase 1, and meiosis II. In meiosis 1, the homologous chromosomes are separated into two haploid cells. During prophase 1, the pairs of homologous chromosomes recombine with other pairs. The following are the phases of prophase 1: leptotene - each separate chromosome condenses into long threads inside of the nucleus; zygotene - the thread-like chromosomes line up with each other;

The Role of Social Media in Managing Customer Relationships Essay

The Role of Social Media in Managing Customer Relationships - Essay Example The varied functional purpose of the organizations include domains like sales, marketing, training professional development, performance management and Human Resource (HR) Development (Cheng Shen, et al., 2010). The major focus should be on effective and timely implementation of the CRM techniques along with its integration with other software programs. The implementation of CRM techniques would require too much installation of procedures which is a time consuming process and also expensive. The overall implementation of CRM application and tools would have high costs associated with it and may not be suitable with the technological environment of the company. The varied technologies have enabled the managers to understand the relevance of CRM, that directly affects and influences the marketing activities and which leads to an increase in the organizational outcome. This has also fostered the relationship between the marketing manager and the customers through collaborative forces of technologies and systems. 1.2.1 Business to Business & Business to Consumer Differences in CRM Conceptual Theory In business to business relationships the conceptual theory is regarded highly for maintaining relationships and then developing incentives accordingly. The conceptual theory can be applicable only to business to business relationships (Mink and Georgi, 2013). On the other hand it helps the corporate customers to develop incentives which would motivate the individual hobbyist to participate in users communities of social media. For consumers, there would be development of customer equity model, customer equity would include desperate measures of calculating the customer needs and requirements and then develop... This essay approves that people are generally prone to engagement in relationship and social marketing tools and the recent advancement in technology will help in maintenance of enhanced customer relationships. It is fair to presume, that the relationship between the different organizational members is quite different from the consumers sector. The methods of social media marketing are also very different and they take into account the planning and implementation of marketing into consideration. The consumer and industrial sector is greatly influenced by the CRM technology integration and the main reason being so would be the construction of organizational capabilities. This report makes a conclusion that relationship marketing is a strategy which is designed to foster customer loyalty, long term engagement and interaction. The development of varied CRM tools would focus more on customer retention and acquisition. These strategies were designed to develop stronger connection with customers by providing them with information related to organizational growth and development. The author of the study has revealed the benefits and non benefits associated with the CRM strategy and its implementation. The variable factors affecting the social media marketing have to be kept into consideration, while developing effective marketing strategies for the betterment of the organizational development systems. Social networking websites are very powerful tools that can be useful as well as harmful to an individual and business enterprise. It has benefitted the common people by providing jobs to millions of people. The usage of social networking websites should be d one cautiously and judiciously.

Video Editing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Video Editing - Essay Example They needed a video capture card that could convert incoming video and audio in digital files that users could work with, If they wanted to record a video back to tape for distribution, that card also needed to be able to handle video output (Ken, 2006).  Users needed special software that would actually handle nonlinear editing aspect of the process - controlling the capture of clips, trimming and managing the clips, moving the various clips around on a storyboard or timeline, adding titles, special effects and transitions, compressing the finished video for distribution and output. If serious about effects and transitions, they also needed acceleration hardware that would make the special effects and transitions happen quicker (Ken, 2006). Of course, editors needed big hard drives to store the raw video and audio clips, the rendered special effects and transitions, and the finished video files.  All that has changed - except for the need for big hard drives. Luckily, big hard d rives have become a lot more affordable and a lot more reliable. Over the last few years, most videographers have adopted digital video camcorders that capture video and audio in a digital format. Many computers now come with DV inputs - iLink, 1394 and Firewire making it a no-brainer to get digital video into the computer. Most programs automatically recognize the camcorder make and are able to remote control it - making it very easy to capture to transfer clips from the camcorder to the computer (Michael, 2007). In addition to handling DV in, DV also handles DV out over the same set of wires. If the DV camcorder offers DV in; it can record finished video projects from the computer back to the camcorder.  Because of the ongoing growth in processor speeds - 2 GHz processors are now commonplace and the accompanying availability and drop in the price of RAM.

Uncertainty reduction theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Uncertainty reduction theory - Essay Example I did not want to speak up, because of the fear that I may offend my new friend, but still, I wanted to express my-self. However, through the axioms of the uncertainty reduction theory, I was able to create and maintain a positive relationship with my friend. Thee first principle that was applicable to my relationship, was based on the ideas that Berger proposed, concerning verbal communication. This is the first axiom of uncertainty reduction theory (Rodriguez, 56). According to this axiom, an increase in the level of verbal communication between strangers manages to reduce the rate of uncertainty. This was directly applicable in my relationship, because I constantly maintained a series of verbal communication with my new friend. The next axiom is non-verbal warmth. An increase in non-verbal communication has the capability of reducing uncertainty. This includes smiles, head nods, hugs, etc. These were widely used in my relationships, because I constantly smiled on my new friend, whenever we met. The third and the fourth axioms involved information seeking and self-disclosures. Under information seeking, the parties to the relationship are involved in looking for information about each other. These types of information include the likes, the dislikes, the culture, the age, and other attributes of their friend. This is important because it would help in creating a relationship that is based on the understanding of the other person. Self-disclosure involves disclosing information pertaining to ourselves to each other. This was an important to my case, because I managed to explain to my friend all about my-self, my family, my likes and dislikes. This played a great role in reducing uncertainty between my friend and my-self. Due to my self-disclosure, my friend was able to reciprocate, and disclose more about himself. This brings us to the fifth axiom which is reciprocity (Baxter and Barbara, 108). Under this concept, when the uncertainty is high,

Oakland, Illinois - a Typical American Town Statistics Project

Oakland, Illinois - a Typical American Town - Statistics Project Example The ethnic composition of the Oakland city is 98.20% Whites, 1.20% African American, 0.50% Native American, and 0.10% from other races. Latino or Hispanic of any race was just 0.90% of the entire populace (American Towns 1). The mean income for a family unit in the metropolis was US$ 38,167, and the mean income for a household was US$ 34,038. Men have a mean income of US$ 29,342 against $20,577 for women (American Towns 1). The â€Å"per head† income for the metropolitan was $15,964. Roughly 8.8% of households along with 10.8% of the population were underneath the poverty line, comprising of also 20.2% of those below age 18, as well as 7.6% of those above the age 65 (American Towns 1).The city, which was platted, in 1833, is a very small, like most, with a post office, high priced grocery stores, and gas stations being the majority of businesses. The filling stations mostly cater to travelers who pass by to fill their vehicles although the town citizens are also frequent clien ts. The city has a total of five grocery stores. The only good thing concerning these grocery stores is that they sell food, which is produced from the state alone. Oakland is one of those towns where everyone knows everyone, and there are no secrets between individuals. It can, in reality, be a good thing when everyone knows you, but also a bad thing when everyone is in your business. It takes away the privacy of someone. Another thing that can be seen in Oakland is the small schools and also the small classroom sizes. Even if, the populace of the town is small, at least the government should consider increasing the size of their classrooms in order for their children to learn properly. These classes feel literary like confinement (American Towns 1).

Portrait of Madame Augustine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Portrait of Madame Augustine - Essay Example Other elements of the canvas, like the background, are elaborately treated with details of flowers and creepers on the wall but such details in the subject seem to be absent altogether. The shapes of other objects are not maintained (this can be inferred especially from the shape of the chair and the junction of wall and floor) and if one compares it with other technically correct paintings, like the ones of the renaissance, it can be found that this painting is technically less disciplined. Van Gogh has given equal importance to foreground, background, subject and all the elements of the canvas as opposite to other portraits in which the subject is the highlighted element of the painting and most elaborately done. Having a hint of expressionism, the painting uses color and vibrant swirling brush strokes to convey the feelings and state of mind of the artist. This also emphasizes the artist's personal response to the subject and like a work of expressionism the painting stresses the expression of the artist's personal interpretation of the subject and his reactions for the same. It seems the physical proportions of the subject have been ... bjective feeling takingplace within the mind of the artist and modified by his individual bias for the use of colors which can be interpret in many different ways. With the use of colors like ocher yellow on the face of the subject and the red carpet on the floor in combination with dark blue walls in the background, Van Gogh attempts to present an emotional experience in its most compelling form (this is also emphasized with the disproportionate size of the head and the eyes looking downwards). On account the things discussed above, one assumes that Van Gogh is not really concerned with reality as it appears to be but with the inner nature and with the emotions aroused by the subject. It seems that he sought to capture emotions and subjective interpretations of that specific time when the painting was made and therefore it was not important for him to reproduce an aesthetically pleasing impression of the subject. He has focused on capturing vivid emotional reactions through vivid colors, bold forms, and spontaneous methods of dripping and flinging powerful colors in combination with dynamic compositions. This use of paint by Van Gogh is very much different as compared to the one used by other artists. Previously his palette consisted of somber colors but later taking references from the French artists he introduced the use of bright colors like red, green and blue and thus built a wider palette that comprised of more vibrant colors. The thick application of paint, distinctive brushstrokes and the use of unnatural or arbitrary color in the portrait were more inclined to emphasize the emotions and were further imitated by other expressionist artists. The impressionist style which was popularized by the artists like Claude Monet was directed towards transferring the

Richard IIIs Battle speech Essay Example for Free

Richard IIIs Battle speech Essay Question a) Examine the literary elements such as diction, symbolism, rhythm, and tone in this extract, and analyze their significance. b) Then, examine how this extract is translated onto film, paying close attention to the ways in which the film adaptations by Laurence Olivier and Al Pacino enhance/ modify your understanding of the play text. Answer a) The extract passage from Shakespeares Richard III depicts how King Richard gives his battle speech to his army, focusing on the raggedness of Richmonds army and their opposition to him as a King. The extract passage is right after King Richard had a dream where the ghosts of all the people he had killed spoke and condemns him. I will be analyzing extract passage from the play, commenting on theme, settings, diction, symbolism, rhythm and tone. In part (b), I will be analyzing the film adaptations of Olivier and Al Pacino on this particular extract, commenting on how each director interpret the extract passage, particularly on the Mise-en-scene of each film adaptation. As Richard was giving his oration to the army, there is structural irony in his speech. It is an irony that he tells his army they having lands, and blest with beauteous wives, Richmonds army will restrain the one, distain the other because in the first place, Richard and the other Yorkists were the ones who killed Henry IV and overthrew the Lancasters who were ruling then. Another irony is that he was the one who uses the power of language to manipulate and seduce Lady Anne, stealing the beauteous wife of Henry IV first. Such irony is engaged by Shakespeare to emphasize one of the themes of the play which is the allure of evil. Richard III does not explore the cause of evil in the human mind so much as it explores its operation, depicting the workings of Richards mind and the methods he uses to manipulate, control, and injure others for his own gain. Another literary device Shakespeare used in this play is the rhyming couplet: March on, join bravely, let us tot pell-mell/ If not to heaven, then hand in hand to hell. In Shakespeares poem, the rhyming couplet has an important significant. We see Richard, after this extract passage, obsessed with his own self-preservation, as indicated by his cry of [a] horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!. Richard clearly reveals his priorities. He would trade everything for a horse on which to improve his chances of surviving the battle rather than die honorably for his cause and this is contradicting his prior speech to the army. Richard III is written in blank verse. Blank verse is unrhymed lines made up of ten syllables in which every second syllable is stressed (study unit 1 pg 26). The rhythms of the verses are caused by these unrhymed iambic pentameters Shakespeare uses. Iambic pentameter is a line made up of five pairs of short/long, or unstressed/stressed, syllables. For example: de-VISED at-FIRST to-KEEP the-STRONG in-AWE. This gives the verses rhythm and makes the verses interesting to read. The tone of the extract passage is strong. There are uses of exclamation marks, for example: Off with his son Georges head! to show the wrath of Richard. Richard also poses questions. For example: Shall these enjoy our lands? Lie with our wives?. Questions can engage the viewers, making the viewers enter his thinking. The lines are also kept within ten syllabus and the words are short so that it will produce a more punchy effect as it is being read out. The short words and rhythmic tone in turns make the diction of the extract clear too. b) In Pacinos film adaptation of extract passage of Richard III, Richard was filmed giving the oration to his army. When examining the cinematic space of the film, the camera shot from a very low angle as Richard was giving the oration. Richard is in the foreground and this makes him look very much bigger. Since it is shot from a low angle up to Richard, Richard seems to be looking down on everyone as he is speaking, emphasizing his power and authority. His oration is quite long and this emphasizes the power of language in achieving political powers, which is one of the central themes to Richard III. Language may not always be a necessary instrument of power, but for Richard, it is a crucial weapon. His extraordinary skill with words enables him to manipulate, confuse, and control those around him. In this case, Pacino is trying to show us that Richards words are powerful and he uses them to control his army. Also, as they shot from the low angle, it depicts the round, bird-like silhouette of Richard, emphasizing on his deformity even more. His deformed body is a symbol of corrupted nature and Pacino make the viewers see that. Richard was the only one being filmed when he was giving the oration. He is in power, but he is alone: his brothers, nephews, and even his own wife are all dead at his hand, his mother has cursed and abandoned him, and even the person who was once his closest friend-Buckingham-has been sent to execution. His army was also not in the frame. Pacino probably wants to emphasize the fact that his army is not actually with him. His army served him not out of respect and loyalty but because they were afraid of him since he constantly beheads anyone who comes into his path. In this film of the extract passage, it vividly dramatizes the contrast between Richards character and Richmonds character, shifting the scene back and forth between them a few times. The leaders, in their respective camps, make almost identical preparations as they ready for the next days battle, but the difference between them can be seen in the way they go about their business. Richard speaks brusquely to his lords, and, as we can see, essentially is isolated from all human contact. Pacino made Richmond appeared gracious. The pre-battle preparation of the two leaders clearly shows their different styles: Richmond was filmed praying to God. In contrast, Richard simply mocks the enemy soldiers, calling them a scum of Bretons and base lackey peasants Looking for Richard is a documentary film and for this scene, Richard is actually not dressed in the medieval costume. It is more like a rehearsal. This suggests Pacinos search for the most effective way to bring the world of King Richard to life for a contemporary audience. It also points to their conviction that Shakespeares characters and themes are timeless: Everyone can look for Richard, and find him, in the world around them. In Oliviers film adaptation of the extract passage Richard III, Richard was not filmed giving the long oration to his army. Instead, the viewers were treated to a battle to watch. The film adaptation was very much close to Shakespeares play. Olivier spoke with rhythm as Richard addresses his army. As he spoke March on, the army shouted a hail as a reply. After he spoke the rhyming couplet: pell-mell and to hell, he leads his army forward on his horse. It was dramatic as he was about to go to the battle. The film was in technicolour and this probably appeals to the viewers at that time. With the technicolour used, the viewers were able to see vividly the colour of their medieval costumes and this makes the whole film real and engaging. The scene of the film was a long shot. There was not much editing done. Spatially, it was shot from afar so that both the army and Richard can be seen. There was not much close up shot except for when Richard has fallen off the horse and his crown rolled away. This foreshadows Richards dethroning. In conclusion, the literary elements such as rhythm, diction, tone, settings, symbolism and themes compliments each other, making Shakespeares play a classic read all time. Both Pacinos and Oliviers film adaptation of Richard III provides viewers with different interpretation of the play, widening the viewers perspective of the play. Bibliography ELT370 Shakespeare on film study guide. SIM University. 2011 Looking For Richard. Dir. Al Pacino. Perf. Al Pacino, Vincent Angell, Harris Yulin, Alec Baldwin. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corporation, 1996. Film.

Comparison Of Two Learning Theories Education Essay

Comparison Of Two Learning Theories Education Essay Learning is a persisting changes in performance or performance potential that result from experience and interaction with the world (Driscoll, 2000, p.3). The way we process information is as individual as our genetic makeup, but research has shown that there are many different types of learning theories used for classroom education. (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, 2007; Weimer, 2002; Steiner, Floyd, Hewett, Lewis, Walker, 2010). The theories of behaviorist and cognitivist are important to compare because they are a part of the basic foundations in which other learning theories have been formed. In order to apply learning theories to nursing practice, the need to understand the basis of different theories is important. Theories have been researched and tested and have some importance as to how things work across different situations and circumstances. Theories can give some consistent ways of looking at classroom practice and some rational explanations for what happens within th e class. Philosophy Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. Behavior is directed by stimuli. An individual selects one response instead of another because of prior conditioning and psychological drives existing at the moment of the action (Parkay Hass, 2000). In education, this type of learning falls into the reward/punishment category. The rewards must be important to the learner in order to give the incentive to respond favorably. Cognitive science began a move from behavioristic practices which emphasized external behavior, to a concern with the internal mental processes of the mind and how they could be utilized in promoting effective learning. The models that had been developed in the behaviorist tradition were not disregarded, but instead the task analysis and learner analysis parts of the models were elaborated on. Cognitivism is based on the thought process behind the observations. Changes in behavior are detected and perceived to be an indicator of what was happening inside the mind. The new models addressed component processes of learning such as knowledge coding and representation, information storage and retrieval as well as the incorporation and integration of new knowledge with previous information. (Saettler, 1990) Origins and Authors The foundation of Behaviorism, trace its roots to the early part of the 20th century. This was during a time when many psychologists emphasized self-analysis of mental processes (introspection) or the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud. In contrast, researchers like Ivan Pavlov, began to develop a framework which emphasized observable processes (environmental stimuli and behavioral responses). (Kentridge, 2007) Originators and important contributors to behaviorism believed that learning is confined to observational and measurable behavior. The two major schools of thought are based on ideas from Pavlov who showed classical conditioning and Skinner who believed in operant conditioning. One of the most famous experiments on classical conditioning is from Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). Pavlov originally was doing an experiment regarding the role of salivation in digestion. From his observations, Pavlov noticed when his assistant brought meat into the laboratory; the dogs being used for in this experiment would automatically start to salivate. Further research into this phenomenon formed the famous Pavlovs stimulus and response experiment, known now as classic conditioning. Classic conditioning is a four-step learning procedure involving reflexes. (Fig. 1) http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html Fig. 1 Pavlovs Dog Experiment During classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning, human and animal subjects change the magnitude and timing of their conditioned response (CR), as a result of the contingency between the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (US). Whereas in classical conditioning, the US and the CS determine the form of the CR, in operant conditioning the strength and frequency, but not the form, of the response is independent of the US. (Schmajuk, 2007) B.F. Skinner (1974) coined the term operant conditioning; it means roughly changing of behavior by the use of reinforcement which is given after the desired response. Skinner identified three types of responses or operant that can follow behavior. Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events. In essence, Skinner believed we are what we have been reinforced for being (Olson Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 76). Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e., behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e., classroom management) and instructional development (e.g., programmed instruction). This theory states that when learning is rewarded, behavior is perpetuated or maintained, while punished behavior is removed. In the classic experiment of Skinner Box, a rat may receive a food reward every time he presses the bar. He presses faster and faster. (Fig 2). http://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html Fig. 2 Skinners Rat Box The major techniques used in operant conditioning are: Positive reinforcement increasing a behavior by administering a reward. Negative reinforcement increasing a behavior by removing an aversive stimulus when a behavior occurs Punishment decreasing a behavior by administering an aversive stimulus Extinction decreasing a behavior by not rewarding it. Albert Bandura thought Skinners theories were too simplistic although he also believed many of the psychological constructs of previous psychological thought were far too laid back, and were neither problem-solving nor action-oriented (Bandura, 1997). He believed in reciprocal determinism, that is, the world and a persons behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that ones environment causes ones behavior, Bandura, who was studying adolescent aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior causes environment as well. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and ones psychological processes (ones ability to entertain images in minds and language). (Bandura, 1997) Cognitivism considers the learner as an information processor, much like that of a computer. It believes that the black box of the mind should be opened and understood. The information comes in, is processed and leads to certain outcomes. The concept believed that people are not just like rats that respond to stimuli but rather, they are rational thinking human beings that require active participation to learn. There are four major contributors to the Cognitivists theory. Howard Gardner believed that students learn in different ways. According to Gardner, we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, and the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains. (Gardner, 1991) Fig. 3 -Multiple intelligences Robert Gangne developed information processing theory identified eight levels of intellectual skills including: signal, stimulus-response, chaining, verbal association, multiple discrimination, concept formation, principle formation and problem solving. He also explained that there are five areas of learning outcomes: verbal information; intellectual skills; cognitive strategies; motor skills and attitudes. www.classweb.gmu.edu Fig. 4-Levels of Intelligence Allan Paivio discovered Dual coding theory that states people process information in two different ways; processing of images and the processing of language. Fig http://cslsrv.ice.ntnu.edu.tw/LabNews/Minutes01S/20010412joseph.htm Fig. 5- Dual Coding Theory Benjamin Bloom described six levels of learning in his model of critical thinking. These levels are also known as Blooms Txaonomy. . http://taspd.edublogs.org/2007/04/23/revised-blooms-taxonomy/ Fig. 6- Blooms Taxonomy Literature Review The two movements differ particularly in their views on behavior. Behaviorism, whose research subjects were mostly animals, views behavior as an irreducible consequence of environmental stimuli, whereas Cognitivism, whose research subjects are often humans, sees behavior as a point from which to abstract the mental processes behind the behavior. Skinners studies of operant behaviors have become very useful in the field of learning and cognition (Corey, 2009). Studies have shown that behavior can be conditioned by reinforcements, positively, which increases the probability of the behavior happening again, or negatively, which decreases the probability the behavior will happen again (Olson Hergenhahn, 2009). Skinners theories still remain in wide use, helping users understand and control behaviors in many disciplines as well as in issues ranging from advertising to parenting (Olson Hergenhahn, 2009). According to Corey (2009), the research of Kazdin (2001) and Spiegler Guevremont (2003) revealed that behavioral therapy is generally as effective as alternative therapies, and in some instances, more effective. The Cognitive Learning Theory supports the idea that learning includes different kinds of memories, motivation and thinking. One of the other important factors is that of reflection. Those that promote Cognitivsm believe that the learning process is internal and depends on memorized information from pre-existing knowledge. (Ausubel, 1974) The theory argues that the degree of which a person learns is not affected by the ability and quality of mental processing. (Craik Tulving, 1975; Craik Tulving, 1975) Cognitivism maintains that memory is stored by using a connective pattern of information that networks with other patterns by means of some type of a relationship. (Stoyanova Kommers, 2002) Use in Nursing Education Writing behavioral-based instructional objectives seems to specify clear, measurable terms to assist learners. According to Morrison (2001), behavior based objectives become the end rather than the means for instruction. Morrison continues to point out that cognitive focused instructional objectives overcome this problem by first stating a general objective to communicate the intent. Additionally, they observe that cognitive objectives are well suited for describing higher levels of learning. (Morrison et al., 2001, p. 97) In behaviorism, the learner is actively involved in learning, practicing, and demonstrating new behaviors and is extremely dependent on receiving feedback from the educator. The educator is responsible for identifying behavioral outcomes, controlling the environment, and providing feedback. Current use of behaviorism in education is most often associated with education and training (Merriam et al., 2007). Behaviorism does well in education because it promotes good behavior and recognizes that unwanted behavior has consequences. Students learn by observing and interpreting the behavior, and associated consequences, of others in a process termed vicarious reinforcement or modeling (Bandura, 1977). Learning by modeling involves a complex process of interpreting, coding, and retaining the information for future application, then engaging in the modeled behavior (Bandura, 1969). Cognitivists have influenced educational strategies by including prior knowledge in influencing how new information is digested. Cognitive learning theorists believe that learning is an internal process in which information is integrated or internalized into ones cognitive or intellectual structure. Learning occurs through internal processing of information. From the cognitive viewpoint, how new information is presented is important. In the first or cognitive phase of learning, the student learns the overall picture of what the task is and the sequences involved. In the second, or fixation learning phase, the learner begins to gain skill in performing the task. In the last phase of learning, the automatic phase, the student gains increasing confidence and competence in performing the task. (Elias et al., 1984) Personal Use I believe that we all use a part of the behaviorists way of learning, to some extent. We all like to be awarded for the work or behavior that we have accomplished. We know there are repercussions and consequences for not adhering to the rules. Our behaviors represent how we are perceived by others in society. The determination of how others behave is by the use of checks and balances of stimuli and response. The way we act and/or behave, teaches people how to respond to us. I believe that I am motivated to learn and acquire more knowledge. The ability to mentally organize, rehearse and comprehend new learning materials is one I strive to obtain. The motivation that has driven me to succeed in both by personal and professional lives has been founded on realistic and challenging goals. Conclusion There are many different ways of learning and teaching. Two of the earliest methods of learning can still utilized in todays classroom. The foundation of theories helps us as a framework to base our learning and teaching upon. We can use positive and negative reinforcement as well as modeling to teach our students how to absorb and maintain new materials. Behaviorism is a teacher based concept full of structure and rules. Examples are class lectures, note taking and role modeling. Cognitivist used a student based concept in which students can find out information by themselves by using case studies, research and discussions. These two types of learning theories can help to shape our future generations.

Relationship between India and the USA

Relationship between India and the USA Abstract This piece of work tries to study the relations of one superpower and another emerging power in international order. The relations of India-US have passed through a roller -coaster character since 1950s. The study is about the Indo-US relations during post Cold-War period. It tries to present in- depth study of the relation between two states, with historical background, major events of the period, US involvement in South Asia/India, its stand on India-Pakistan disputes. It observes about the transition from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ of the relations. US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic, and the US was closed ally with Pakistan. The study is trying to find out How the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority and finally turned to be natural ally. The relations have passed through different stage from ‘neither friend nor enemy’, ‘distanced democracies ’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’ with nuclear partnership. This achievement and transformation is not happened overnight. To achieve these, both countries have passed through different states overtime. The thesis tries to find out some reason behind this quick development in the relations. The transformation happened during post Cold -War period. Behind these transformations some reason such as Indian practice of democratization, open market policy, huge development on economy and IT sector played vital role. Likewise, US goal in the region was fulfilled while making good relations with India. After analysing some major events and immediate reaction, the thesis tries to make an argument that, with other reasons side by side, the nuclear test of 1998 by India was the central theme that helped for the transformations of the relations.   Chapter 1 Introduction and literature review Topic introduction and Purpose of the study After the end of the Cold War, the United States is leading in the International Order, and it is experienced that- this time is American time, its hegemony and policy for liberal democracy, human rights or in any colour or form. So its relations with any other part of the world is itself interesting and important. On the other hand, India is the largest democracy in the world and emerging power in the International order. It is economically and strategically threat to the US, it is tiger in Asia in term of population, economy and nuclear capacity. The relation between the superpower and emerging power is obviously important to the students of International Relations/politics or common people as well. So it is hoped that this research makes some interesting and important line of arguments. â€Å"As the tiger economies of South-east Asia roared away in the 1970s and 1980s, Indias biggest achievements remained its ability to feed its own people, and its adherence against the odds to democracy. Unshackled by the economic liberalisation of the early 1990s, India is already poised to overtake Japan as the worlds third largest economy. The nuclear status of India has been formally acknowledged by the US And, when the UN is finally reformed, its likely to land a permanent seat on the Security Council† (BBC Online, 2009.) For over forty years, the United States has contended with the problem of formatting a coherent policy toward South Asia- a region that contains approximately one-fifth of the world’s population. During this time, US policy has surrounded between interventions and withdrawal.  Detailed analysis of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the regions two major states: India and Pakistan. The nations of South Asia contain a fifth of the human race. They include one state (India) that is certainly the world’s largest democracy and one other (Pakistan) that has been an intermittent ally of the US since 1953. For over thirty-five years Washington’s policy has shifted uneasily from neglect of the region to intense involvement in its economic, political, and military affairs, seeing in the former certain ideological and moral values and in the latter certain strategic and military advantages. This research tries to fill a gap in understanding of the reasons for American involvement in and policy toward South Asia especially India. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. American relations with Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and South Asia are relatively neglected and episodic in nature. This absence of interest is especially marked in the case of South Asia. Yet, American decisions have profoundly affected the lives of most South Asians, the societies of regional states, and their external policies. It has often been noted that this influence and the relationship is excessively one-sided: American decisions affect South Asians far more than South Asian decisions can ever affect Americans. The purpose of this study is to examine the sources and patters of American responses towards events in India over a period of time, through an examination of some case study. Giving some brief introduction and history of Indo-US security relation after 2nd World War, it talks in detail about the relation during Post Cold War period. After the end of the Cold War, every country around the world effected, but South Asian countries effected more than others. The US has no rival in world order, but India and Pakistan, two countries from the South Asia emerged as new nuclear power. India could not be the state as neglected before. Post Cold- War period saw dramatic changes in US-India relation. Research Focus/Research question The main thrust of this thesis is to present the Indo-US relations during Post Cold War period, to study main events of the period and to explore the reasons behind the transformation in relations. The thesis is focused on the periphery of Post Cold War leading to 9/11. In the short span of time in 1990s how the transformation was possible, how the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority in American foreign policy, it tries to answer these questions. The thesis tries to make an argument that the nuclear test of 1998 was the central theme that helped for the transformation of the relation. The Indo-US convergence was abruptly interrupted by India’s May 1998 nuclear tests. President Clinton’s initial reaction was simultaneously emotional: ‘To think that you have to manifest your greatness by behaviour that recalls the very worst events of the 20th century on the edge of the 21st century when everybody else is trying to leave the nuclear age behind, is just wrong.’ Because of the fact that both India and Pakistan had been de facto nuclear weapon states, US concerned about the possibility of nuclear war in South Asia, but it was obviously a challenge in Western hegemony as well. Although the US imposed suspension of most military-military contacts, the nuclear tests started a high-level engagements between the US and India. Overtime, the Clinton Administration adapted itself to the reality that India’s great-power aspirations included becoming a full-fledged nuclear weapons state. India’s 1998 nuclear explosive test were a blessing in disguise for long-term Indo-US relations. Once the tests exploded the illusion, Washington and New Delhi could get on with the important task of relating to one another on a more equal footing. Methodology The study is based on academic writings such as books, journal and online resources. While using such material a great care has been taken in term of their credibility. The books studied for the research are written by academics mostly of Indian background in origin. Mostly they are educated in American Universities and working there in US Universities. Their academic background and research area is about American foreign policy, Asian studies, Asians security. Likewise the online resources have been used with great care such as produced by the academics and trustworthy organizations like Asia Foundations, governmental bodies and well -known research centres. Though writers are educated and being engaged in US academia, care have been taken while developing arguments from their writing, being India origin, emotional behave might affect on their writing about American or Indian perspective. The thesis also contains three major events which were supposed to play determinative role for the transformations of the relations. Likewise it also collects immediate reaction after the test. For reactions the samples have been collected in three groups. Structure of the thesis The thesis is composed of six chapters. Chapter one is the general introduction explaining the topic and subject matter, rationale, and methodology. This chapter also includes the literature review. The second chapter traces the history of Indo-US relations. It talks about the US engagement in Asia and India. It simply presents the history of the relation explaining some major events of the period. The third chapter is about the post Cold -War scenarios. It begins with how the US started tilting to India not Pakistan. The change in American policy to South Asia and India begin at this point of time. This chapter explains three major events of the period as case study: Kashmir Issue 1999, nuclear test 1998 and Clinton visit 2002. After this, in Chapter Four to know the immediate reaction after the test, it collects some thoughts expressed in news Medias and thoughts by think tanks especially in the US. How the think-tank and the governments reacted to the test and talked about the bilateral relations.   After analysing three major events and reactions of the governments, think tanks and views expressed on newspaper, Chapter Five, the main part of the thesis makes an argument that it was the nuclear test 1998, which helped to transform the relation. This chapter once again makes a revision of the relation since 1950s. Finally, the thesis contains the conclusion and bibliography. Literature Review: As mentioned above, literature on American foreign policy is easily accessible and available everywhere but regarding the US relations to the South Asian region; book and journals are not available enough as compared to other regions. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. For example, Ambrose S E. (1993) exclusively presents the history of American foreign policy since 1938. Ambrose gives detail survey of American Foreign Policy from the period America was secure in the world-neither of the great totalitarian political forces of the century, Fascism or Communism. The author presents the overview of the evolution of American foreign Policy focusing on major events like World War II, the Cuban missile crisis, Vietnam War, and the SALT treaties. It also talks about the individual Presidents and their changed attitudes to the different regions. Ambrose begins with the starting years of American Foreign Policy and its strength overtime up to Bush Policy and US engagements in Gulf war. Ambrose presents a chronological history of American Foreign Policy, but this book hardly discusses the development in South Asian region. The author is quite on US engagement in South Asia/India or US involvement in Indian/Pakistani War, Kargil issue As compared to Ambrose, Spanier J (1983) talks about the US and third world (author’s term) developments. Spanier presents an account of American foreign policy from the closing days of World War II to the beginning of the second Regan administration. The author presents interpretation of the roles of the Unites States on the world stage since it became a nuclear superpower. It also talks about the theoretical frameworks of American foreign policy like the American approach to foreign policy, the state system, the American national style, the contrast between systematic and national behaviour. Spainer clearly tries to explore the reason behind World War, its significance and detailed survey of impact of nuclear weapons on the pattern of American-Soviet relations. The author explains in detail about the role of 3rd world during the Cold War to conflict with-and-in-the Third World. Bertsch K. Gary et.al. (1999) collects twelve essays by US educated academics with background study in South Asian studies. Most of the authors are with Indian background, educated and engaged in US intuitions. The write-up reflects their long experiences with their work either academic or institution like US based South Asia Program, Institutes for Defence Studies. The author addresses the broad range of non-proliferation and foreign policy issues that affect Indo-American relations. It not only describes missile control and space cooperation, chemical and biological weapons, and the use of sanctions versus incentives, the individual authors with their expertise knowledge provide practical recommendations for how a stronger and more meaningful dialogue can be established between the policy makers of the world’s two largest democracies. Authors present about the history of Indo-US relations in different perspective like strategic, economic, political, technical aspects but its main focus is to talk about broad insight into India’s relations with the rest of the world in the shadow of India’s 1998 nuclear tests. Likewise Gangulyscobell (2006) present a series of perspectives about US-Indian strategic cooperation. The authors make an effort for the current status and future instructions of the relation. The identify the strategic context for and logic behind Indias emerging security cooperation with the US, the strategic context for and logic behind growing US security cooperation with India, growing bilateral cooperation in the US-led Global War on Terrorism. Likewise, it raises an important issue of the US assessment of Indias role in the anti-terror struggle, Indian assessment of the US worldwide anti-terror effort, Chinese view of the growing security ties between Washington and New Delhi. Likewise it identifies some military-to-military ties between the United States and India, one from the perspective of Washington, and the other from a New Delhi perspective. S. Ganguly et.al. (2006) traces the origins, development and the current state of Indo-US strategic cooperation. The authors access the strategic cooperation of the worlds two largest democracies. They entirely talk about the strategic relation of the two countries. The book provides an assessment of Indo-US relations with a particular focus on the evolution of contemporary bilateral relations, focuses on the current state of military-to-military cooperation. The authors highlight the development of Indo-US defence ties over the last few decades and examine its underlying causes. Likewise they addressees key areas of future strategic cooperation including high technology trade, participation in multilateral peacekeeping operations. S. Ganguly’ (1990) identifies the key issues of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the region’s two major states: India and Pakistan. Using case studies the author bases his study on US policy in four major South Asian crises: the 1962 India-China War, the India-Pakistan conflicts of 1965 and 1971, and the massive draught of 1966-1967. Ganguly’s research not only talks about the American foreign policy during different presidents in office and major events but also it talks about the theoretical aspect of American foreign policy. It describes analytical perspective of US foreign policy, South Asia and US foreign policy, history of Indo-US relations and Indo-China War, 1965 War, The 1965-67 Crisis, the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. The author provides the detailed explanation of the major events of the history between two states and mostly incidents are based on American perspective. As mentioned earlier since the region itself did not get priority, so the discussion about the region in world affairs was limited. Only after late 1990s and especially after the nuclear test, the literature on American policy to Asia and India seems growing. One of such discussion is J. Singh (1998). It provides both historical and contemporary analytical insights on a variety of subjects that impose upon a nuclear India. Singh checks out the nuclear reality as it exists today, at the national and international level. He begins with why nuclear weapons are required and what are they all about. It further examines the rationale for the possession of nuclear weapons, detailed history of the Indian nuclear policy formulation between 1964-1998, presents history to trace the origin of nuclear weapons. It also demonstrates about the paths of proliferation and non-proliferation over the last five decades. The author also looks at the increasing proliferation concerns in the Indian neighbourhood, lists out the major proliferation challenges that have emerged after the Cold War. Likewise, it further focuses specially on ballistic missiles and their implications for international security. Likewise it also presents a detailed study of both China and Pakistan’s nuclear weapons and missile programme, examines the traditional Indian position on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, impact of the nuclear test ban on the post-Cold War environment. It gives enough information about the nuclear weapons, their introduction, how they work and why they are required. It also presents the history of nuclear weapons, telling about the nuclear have countries when and how they conducted it. Jain, Rashmi (Ed.) 2006) presents the record of the transition of Indo-US relations from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ in the 21st century. It is the inclusive and current study of the political, economic/trade, military/defence and nuclear proportions of Indo-US relations from 1947 to 2006. Jain discusses the overall trends in relations between India and the United States during the Cold War and after. It deals with the implications of the American alliance with Pakistan, the extension of limited arms assistance to India following the India-China war of 1962 and support to the Tashkent and Simla agreements, Nixons tilt towards Pakistan during the Indo-Pak war of 1971, India’s nuclear test of 1947. The study contains a selection of 692 basic documents from official sources, including Congressional hearings, and provides the full texts or extracts from various agreements, joint communiquà ©s and statements and interviews by Government dignitaries. It is the collection of official documents related between the relations of two countries for about fifty years. It works as primary source for the researcher. Beside these books, Journal and other reports have been used while conducting the research. Journals like Foreign affairs, International Affairs, Strategic Affairs, and online edition of The Economist and news sites of BBC, CNN, The New York Times and Indian newspapers such as Hindu, the Times of India has been used. Likewise US congress report, governmental publications and the reports published by the Ministry of Indian External Affairs have been used. Chapter 2 Historical Background ‘South Asia and US Foreign Policy-US meets India’ This chapter briefs about the American Foreign Policy and US involvement in South Asia/India. It is an account of US-Indo relations after 1950s to late 1980s. It is not chronological history of the relation, but it includes major events and trends of the time. South Asia comprises a subsystem of powers with two major nations; India and Pakistan that are actually within South Asia and there others, China, the US and the USSR, that are extra-regional players in the region. South Asia also contains other states with minimal military and economical power; Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. By virtue of their global status, the US and the USSR have been involved in South Asia until 1990s. South Asian Countries are often introduced by political instability, a relative diffusion of powers and slow economic development. These characteristics and weakness prompted the two superpowers to fill the apparent power vacuum and to change it in order to strengthen their respective global and regional policies (Ganguly S. 1999.) South Asia has been usually been regarded as only marginally important to the United States. In the major American security decisions regarding the stability of the international system, maintenance of nuclear balance or the problem of war and peace, South Asia was not considered a determining factor. Some reasons can be traced behind less priority of US to South Asia   First, it was not vital strategically; it did not offer any major resources essential to American industry. Second, the low level of economic and political interaction could not generate a positive image of South Asia in the American mind. In American perceptions, the area remained a preserve of British interests. Thus, US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic (R.Arthur, 2006.) The central dilemma of US policy in South Asia since 1947 has been to deal with the competing claims of the two principal states of this region, India and Pakistan. In a sense, the constant dilemma of Americas South Asia Policy is a result of the regional contest between these two states.Of these two Sub continental states, if India was often a unimportant factor in US perception of the global strategic equation, Pakistan was an insignificant factor unless military aligned with the US. The initial US involvement in South Asia was barely influenced by the regional developments.  What did shape the US role was the shrinking British Empire and the rapid decline of the KMT regime in China. Succeeding US military links to South Asia (especially Pakistan), a subsidiary of its concern in relation to the Soviet Union, accidentally emphasized the level of hostility between India and Pakistan. US involvement not only annoyed India but also brought the Soviet Union and later China into the Subcontinent and made the region an arena of Cold war politics (Ganguly S, 1990.) In many ways, US involvement in India started during World War II, before this both officials and unofficial contacts with India were minimal. While the US maintained a few consular officers in India to look after commercial interests, it relied largely on British Foreign Office communications for information on the Indian political situation. The US really became involved in South Asia after its entry into World War II. British India served at that time as a spring –board for allied military operations against the Japanese in China and Southeast Asia. India’s relations with the Unites States have been described variously as ‘estranged democracies’ and distance powers by Americans. Indian have tended to describe it as ‘distanced democracies’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’. Another common refrain often articulated from India, describes the United States as the oldest and most powerful democracy and itself as the largest. The expectation from both sides appears to have been that ‘democracy’ will somehow transcend national interests and security imperatives and shape the relationship (B.Dipankar, 2006.) Relations between India and the US have varied widely over the last sixty-five years and adopted a roller-coaster character with many ups and downs and high and lows. In recent years India –US relations has transformed into what both sides claim to be a strategic partnership. Even as both countries move towards that desirable goal, it is useful to recall that divergences in perceptions and policies have varied widely over the years. At the end of the Second World War the Unites States emerged as the undisputed leader of the free world. Its lead in almost every area of consequence remains unchallenged for decades. All its possible peers were largely destroyed by the war and indeed needed Washington’s help to revive themselves. The United States did not just dominate the emerging world order, but had the opportunity to shape it by laying out its figures and establishing the international institutions that would determine its future. Within a few years of the War’s end, the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc emerged as the only group that could conceivably challenge this order, but only in a limited military sense. For India, the immediate concerns were different. It was to emerge from colonialism and external domination as an independent entity. It had first to fully assert its independence, in which it only got success partially as the nation itself was split into India and Pakistan addressing the region to internal conflict for decades. India’s identity and nationalism had to be developed an additional based on its own values and heritage and its territories needed to be consolidated. In addition to these concerns, a modern state had to be created almost from the beginning with all its associated institutions. (C. Raja Mohan 2003) To achieve these immediate goals, India needed a peaceful external environment, uncomplicated by the rivalries of the global power struggle. New Delhi needed to craft a policy that would provide it a meaningful and autonomous role in a future world, in keeping with its own size potential and aspiration. In accordance with these needs it choose a policy of ‘non-alignment’. The term itself was much misunderstood in the world, and particularly in the US. India, perhaps justifiably, never fully explained its position, leading many in the west to ask, ‘non-aligned against what; good and evil?’(R.Bahukutumbi, 1996.) What Nehru opined was a policy that would enable India to take independent positions on international issues without being tied down by alliances and ideological constraints. The central theme was not to get drawn in to military entanglements with major powers. He also hoped this would open up the possibility for India to adopt a position of some leadership of the emerging world. Many practical difficulties emerged, which hindered the implementations of this policy over the years. Over time, other countries also decided to remain ‘non-aligned’. On global issues, non-alignment often meant aligning against the west. Overall this policy prohibited the possibility of a military relationship with any country or grouping. This policy, and differences in world view, became a major barrier to an Indo-US military relationship throughout the Cold War (Ganguly S, 1990.) Indo-US diplomatic relations go back to the presidency of George Washington when Benjamin Joy was appointed to the position of US Consul in Calcutta, the then Indian Capital in 1792. Nothing of note happened until April 1941. When Girija Shakar Bajpai was appointed the first Agent General of India in Washington DC and Thomas Wilson shifted as US Commissioner from Calcutta to New Delhi. At that time President Roosevelt understood that a successful pursuit of the war against the Axis powers required India’s willing support and cooperation. Roosevelt’s support for Indian independence and concern about continuing British rule had left a favourable impression on Indians (Chari PR 1999.) Churchill’s refusal to contemplate a serious change in British imperial policy compelled the Indian National Congress to launch the Quit India movement in 1942. The Congress leaders believed that only an India that was promised freedom after the war could voluntarily join the war against fascism. Instead, the British responded by locking up most senior Congress political leaders. In spite of this, India’s participation in the Second World War was remarkable by any standards. Over two and a half million soldiers, each a volunteer, fought with Allied armies in many of the major threats of the global conflict. This contribution was particularly salient in the Burma front, without which the outcome would have been considerably less certain. In addition to the roughly half-million soldiers from India and the British Commonwealth in this theatre, the Allied forces were joined by troops representing the Nationalist Chinese, many Africans and, by the war’s end, some 250,000 US soldiers (Sigh 2005.) This enormous US troop contribution was easily its largest military-to-military relationship in South Asia. US forces provided the bulk of logistics support, flew substantial numbers of air sorties across uncharted routes in unstable aircraft, and ensured that the Kuomintang forces remained in the war against Japan in China. In addition, there was also the enormous Brooklyn air conditioning plant near Kolkata, the largest in Asia at the time that stored and supplied food to all Allied forces in the East (Banerjee, D 2000.) It might have been expected that this state relations would continue after Indian independence. Instead, the Cold war intervened. India was partitioned and a separate state, Pakistan came into existence in 1947. During the Cold War, the pressure of strategic imperatives often widened the disjuncture between the hope and the reality resulting in hurtful Indo-US relations. The US support to Pakistan on the Jammu and Kashmir dispute in the United Nations in 1948-49, and initiation of military support to Pakistan in 1954, shed a binding shadow on the relationship. The United States wanted to join as many states as possible in its war against communism, often in a formal strategic relationship. India viewed the logic of American alliances as directly breaking its own interests. India was convinced that American military support had encouraged Pakistan to wage war against it in 1965. This happened again during Indo-Pak war in 1971, when the US gave warnings to India and sent the USS Enterprise of its 7th Fleet into the Bay of Bengal. The United States perceived India’s policy of non-alignment as self-righteous and considered its neutrality far from neutral, citing examples of its silence over the Soviet invasion of Hungary and Czechosloskavia in 1968 (Dasgupta 2002.) In mid 1961 India agreed to buy the MiG-21 aircraft from the Soviet Union. This was offered on such munificent terms that neither Great Britain, nor France nor the US could come up with a comparable offer even if they wanted to match it. Thus, began a long and enduring Indo-Soviet arms relationship (Ganguly S, 1990.) The very strong Indian reaction to the evolving Pakistan-US military alliance was perhaps not anticipated in Washington. In any case, by now India’s image in the US had plunged and New Delhi‘s concerns were not a factor in US decision making. Indo-US relations remained frozen in a sate of suspended hostility until 1962. The Chinese aggression on India in Oct-Nov 1962 led to a remarkable turn around in Indo-US relations. The attack from Chinese side surprised and shocked the Indian leaders. A total of two Indian infantry divisions, or less than ten percent of the Indian combat force, faced a thoroughly prepared PLA. The Indian forces were totally unprepared, badly deployed, under-equipped and even without proper clothes. The defeat was total in terms of India’s political standing and its foreign policy. What is notable was the dramatic shift in Indian policy and the liberal military and political support that India received from the US and the West. None of India’s non-aligned partners provided help and few showed any sympathy. Moscow actually temporarily halted the MiG program, siding instead with its socialist friend.  In contrast, the US came through with substantial help. A considerably larger arms package of US $ 373 million was apparently worked out by November 1963 in Washington by Ambassador Chester Bowles and was to have been signed by President Kennedy on 26th of November, 1963. Kennedy said; We should defend India, and therefore Relationship between India and the USA Relationship between India and the USA Abstract This piece of work tries to study the relations of one superpower and another emerging power in international order. The relations of India-US have passed through a roller -coaster character since 1950s. The study is about the Indo-US relations during post Cold-War period. It tries to present in- depth study of the relation between two states, with historical background, major events of the period, US involvement in South Asia/India, its stand on India-Pakistan disputes. It observes about the transition from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ of the relations. US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic, and the US was closed ally with Pakistan. The study is trying to find out How the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority and finally turned to be natural ally. The relations have passed through different stage from ‘neither friend nor enemy’, ‘distanced democracies ’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’ with nuclear partnership. This achievement and transformation is not happened overnight. To achieve these, both countries have passed through different states overtime. The thesis tries to find out some reason behind this quick development in the relations. The transformation happened during post Cold -War period. Behind these transformations some reason such as Indian practice of democratization, open market policy, huge development on economy and IT sector played vital role. Likewise, US goal in the region was fulfilled while making good relations with India. After analysing some major events and immediate reaction, the thesis tries to make an argument that, with other reasons side by side, the nuclear test of 1998 by India was the central theme that helped for the transformations of the relations.   Chapter 1 Introduction and literature review Topic introduction and Purpose of the study After the end of the Cold War, the United States is leading in the International Order, and it is experienced that- this time is American time, its hegemony and policy for liberal democracy, human rights or in any colour or form. So its relations with any other part of the world is itself interesting and important. On the other hand, India is the largest democracy in the world and emerging power in the International order. It is economically and strategically threat to the US, it is tiger in Asia in term of population, economy and nuclear capacity. The relation between the superpower and emerging power is obviously important to the students of International Relations/politics or common people as well. So it is hoped that this research makes some interesting and important line of arguments. â€Å"As the tiger economies of South-east Asia roared away in the 1970s and 1980s, Indias biggest achievements remained its ability to feed its own people, and its adherence against the odds to democracy. Unshackled by the economic liberalisation of the early 1990s, India is already poised to overtake Japan as the worlds third largest economy. The nuclear status of India has been formally acknowledged by the US And, when the UN is finally reformed, its likely to land a permanent seat on the Security Council† (BBC Online, 2009.) For over forty years, the United States has contended with the problem of formatting a coherent policy toward South Asia- a region that contains approximately one-fifth of the world’s population. During this time, US policy has surrounded between interventions and withdrawal.  Detailed analysis of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the regions two major states: India and Pakistan. The nations of South Asia contain a fifth of the human race. They include one state (India) that is certainly the world’s largest democracy and one other (Pakistan) that has been an intermittent ally of the US since 1953. For over thirty-five years Washington’s policy has shifted uneasily from neglect of the region to intense involvement in its economic, political, and military affairs, seeing in the former certain ideological and moral values and in the latter certain strategic and military advantages. This research tries to fill a gap in understanding of the reasons for American involvement in and policy toward South Asia especially India. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. American relations with Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and South Asia are relatively neglected and episodic in nature. This absence of interest is especially marked in the case of South Asia. Yet, American decisions have profoundly affected the lives of most South Asians, the societies of regional states, and their external policies. It has often been noted that this influence and the relationship is excessively one-sided: American decisions affect South Asians far more than South Asian decisions can ever affect Americans. The purpose of this study is to examine the sources and patters of American responses towards events in India over a period of time, through an examination of some case study. Giving some brief introduction and history of Indo-US security relation after 2nd World War, it talks in detail about the relation during Post Cold War period. After the end of the Cold War, every country around the world effected, but South Asian countries effected more than others. The US has no rival in world order, but India and Pakistan, two countries from the South Asia emerged as new nuclear power. India could not be the state as neglected before. Post Cold- War period saw dramatic changes in US-India relation. Research Focus/Research question The main thrust of this thesis is to present the Indo-US relations during Post Cold War period, to study main events of the period and to explore the reasons behind the transformation in relations. The thesis is focused on the periphery of Post Cold War leading to 9/11. In the short span of time in 1990s how the transformation was possible, how the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority in American foreign policy, it tries to answer these questions. The thesis tries to make an argument that the nuclear test of 1998 was the central theme that helped for the transformation of the relation. The Indo-US convergence was abruptly interrupted by India’s May 1998 nuclear tests. President Clinton’s initial reaction was simultaneously emotional: ‘To think that you have to manifest your greatness by behaviour that recalls the very worst events of the 20th century on the edge of the 21st century when everybody else is trying to leave the nuclear age behind, is just wrong.’ Because of the fact that both India and Pakistan had been de facto nuclear weapon states, US concerned about the possibility of nuclear war in South Asia, but it was obviously a challenge in Western hegemony as well. Although the US imposed suspension of most military-military contacts, the nuclear tests started a high-level engagements between the US and India. Overtime, the Clinton Administration adapted itself to the reality that India’s great-power aspirations included becoming a full-fledged nuclear weapons state. India’s 1998 nuclear explosive test were a blessing in disguise for long-term Indo-US relations. Once the tests exploded the illusion, Washington and New Delhi could get on with the important task of relating to one another on a more equal footing. Methodology The study is based on academic writings such as books, journal and online resources. While using such material a great care has been taken in term of their credibility. The books studied for the research are written by academics mostly of Indian background in origin. Mostly they are educated in American Universities and working there in US Universities. Their academic background and research area is about American foreign policy, Asian studies, Asians security. Likewise the online resources have been used with great care such as produced by the academics and trustworthy organizations like Asia Foundations, governmental bodies and well -known research centres. Though writers are educated and being engaged in US academia, care have been taken while developing arguments from their writing, being India origin, emotional behave might affect on their writing about American or Indian perspective. The thesis also contains three major events which were supposed to play determinative role for the transformations of the relations. Likewise it also collects immediate reaction after the test. For reactions the samples have been collected in three groups. Structure of the thesis The thesis is composed of six chapters. Chapter one is the general introduction explaining the topic and subject matter, rationale, and methodology. This chapter also includes the literature review. The second chapter traces the history of Indo-US relations. It talks about the US engagement in Asia and India. It simply presents the history of the relation explaining some major events of the period. The third chapter is about the post Cold -War scenarios. It begins with how the US started tilting to India not Pakistan. The change in American policy to South Asia and India begin at this point of time. This chapter explains three major events of the period as case study: Kashmir Issue 1999, nuclear test 1998 and Clinton visit 2002. After this, in Chapter Four to know the immediate reaction after the test, it collects some thoughts expressed in news Medias and thoughts by think tanks especially in the US. How the think-tank and the governments reacted to the test and talked about the bilateral relations.   After analysing three major events and reactions of the governments, think tanks and views expressed on newspaper, Chapter Five, the main part of the thesis makes an argument that it was the nuclear test 1998, which helped to transform the relation. This chapter once again makes a revision of the relation since 1950s. Finally, the thesis contains the conclusion and bibliography. Literature Review: As mentioned above, literature on American foreign policy is easily accessible and available everywhere but regarding the US relations to the South Asian region; book and journals are not available enough as compared to other regions. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. For example, Ambrose S E. (1993) exclusively presents the history of American foreign policy since 1938. Ambrose gives detail survey of American Foreign Policy from the period America was secure in the world-neither of the great totalitarian political forces of the century, Fascism or Communism. The author presents the overview of the evolution of American foreign Policy focusing on major events like World War II, the Cuban missile crisis, Vietnam War, and the SALT treaties. It also talks about the individual Presidents and their changed attitudes to the different regions. Ambrose begins with the starting years of American Foreign Policy and its strength overtime up to Bush Policy and US engagements in Gulf war. Ambrose presents a chronological history of American Foreign Policy, but this book hardly discusses the development in South Asian region. The author is quite on US engagement in South Asia/India or US involvement in Indian/Pakistani War, Kargil issue As compared to Ambrose, Spanier J (1983) talks about the US and third world (author’s term) developments. Spanier presents an account of American foreign policy from the closing days of World War II to the beginning of the second Regan administration. The author presents interpretation of the roles of the Unites States on the world stage since it became a nuclear superpower. It also talks about the theoretical frameworks of American foreign policy like the American approach to foreign policy, the state system, the American national style, the contrast between systematic and national behaviour. Spainer clearly tries to explore the reason behind World War, its significance and detailed survey of impact of nuclear weapons on the pattern of American-Soviet relations. The author explains in detail about the role of 3rd world during the Cold War to conflict with-and-in-the Third World. Bertsch K. Gary et.al. (1999) collects twelve essays by US educated academics with background study in South Asian studies. Most of the authors are with Indian background, educated and engaged in US intuitions. The write-up reflects their long experiences with their work either academic or institution like US based South Asia Program, Institutes for Defence Studies. The author addresses the broad range of non-proliferation and foreign policy issues that affect Indo-American relations. It not only describes missile control and space cooperation, chemical and biological weapons, and the use of sanctions versus incentives, the individual authors with their expertise knowledge provide practical recommendations for how a stronger and more meaningful dialogue can be established between the policy makers of the world’s two largest democracies. Authors present about the history of Indo-US relations in different perspective like strategic, economic, political, technical aspects but its main focus is to talk about broad insight into India’s relations with the rest of the world in the shadow of India’s 1998 nuclear tests. Likewise Gangulyscobell (2006) present a series of perspectives about US-Indian strategic cooperation. The authors make an effort for the current status and future instructions of the relation. The identify the strategic context for and logic behind Indias emerging security cooperation with the US, the strategic context for and logic behind growing US security cooperation with India, growing bilateral cooperation in the US-led Global War on Terrorism. Likewise, it raises an important issue of the US assessment of Indias role in the anti-terror struggle, Indian assessment of the US worldwide anti-terror effort, Chinese view of the growing security ties between Washington and New Delhi. Likewise it identifies some military-to-military ties between the United States and India, one from the perspective of Washington, and the other from a New Delhi perspective. S. Ganguly et.al. (2006) traces the origins, development and the current state of Indo-US strategic cooperation. The authors access the strategic cooperation of the worlds two largest democracies. They entirely talk about the strategic relation of the two countries. The book provides an assessment of Indo-US relations with a particular focus on the evolution of contemporary bilateral relations, focuses on the current state of military-to-military cooperation. The authors highlight the development of Indo-US defence ties over the last few decades and examine its underlying causes. Likewise they addressees key areas of future strategic cooperation including high technology trade, participation in multilateral peacekeeping operations. S. Ganguly’ (1990) identifies the key issues of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the region’s two major states: India and Pakistan. Using case studies the author bases his study on US policy in four major South Asian crises: the 1962 India-China War, the India-Pakistan conflicts of 1965 and 1971, and the massive draught of 1966-1967. Ganguly’s research not only talks about the American foreign policy during different presidents in office and major events but also it talks about the theoretical aspect of American foreign policy. It describes analytical perspective of US foreign policy, South Asia and US foreign policy, history of Indo-US relations and Indo-China War, 1965 War, The 1965-67 Crisis, the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. The author provides the detailed explanation of the major events of the history between two states and mostly incidents are based on American perspective. As mentioned earlier since the region itself did not get priority, so the discussion about the region in world affairs was limited. Only after late 1990s and especially after the nuclear test, the literature on American policy to Asia and India seems growing. One of such discussion is J. Singh (1998). It provides both historical and contemporary analytical insights on a variety of subjects that impose upon a nuclear India. Singh checks out the nuclear reality as it exists today, at the national and international level. He begins with why nuclear weapons are required and what are they all about. It further examines the rationale for the possession of nuclear weapons, detailed history of the Indian nuclear policy formulation between 1964-1998, presents history to trace the origin of nuclear weapons. It also demonstrates about the paths of proliferation and non-proliferation over the last five decades. The author also looks at the increasing proliferation concerns in the Indian neighbourhood, lists out the major proliferation challenges that have emerged after the Cold War. Likewise, it further focuses specially on ballistic missiles and their implications for international security. Likewise it also presents a detailed study of both China and Pakistan’s nuclear weapons and missile programme, examines the traditional Indian position on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, impact of the nuclear test ban on the post-Cold War environment. It gives enough information about the nuclear weapons, their introduction, how they work and why they are required. It also presents the history of nuclear weapons, telling about the nuclear have countries when and how they conducted it. Jain, Rashmi (Ed.) 2006) presents the record of the transition of Indo-US relations from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ in the 21st century. It is the inclusive and current study of the political, economic/trade, military/defence and nuclear proportions of Indo-US relations from 1947 to 2006. Jain discusses the overall trends in relations between India and the United States during the Cold War and after. It deals with the implications of the American alliance with Pakistan, the extension of limited arms assistance to India following the India-China war of 1962 and support to the Tashkent and Simla agreements, Nixons tilt towards Pakistan during the Indo-Pak war of 1971, India’s nuclear test of 1947. The study contains a selection of 692 basic documents from official sources, including Congressional hearings, and provides the full texts or extracts from various agreements, joint communiquà ©s and statements and interviews by Government dignitaries. It is the collection of official documents related between the relations of two countries for about fifty years. It works as primary source for the researcher. Beside these books, Journal and other reports have been used while conducting the research. Journals like Foreign affairs, International Affairs, Strategic Affairs, and online edition of The Economist and news sites of BBC, CNN, The New York Times and Indian newspapers such as Hindu, the Times of India has been used. Likewise US congress report, governmental publications and the reports published by the Ministry of Indian External Affairs have been used. Chapter 2 Historical Background ‘South Asia and US Foreign Policy-US meets India’ This chapter briefs about the American Foreign Policy and US involvement in South Asia/India. It is an account of US-Indo relations after 1950s to late 1980s. It is not chronological history of the relation, but it includes major events and trends of the time. South Asia comprises a subsystem of powers with two major nations; India and Pakistan that are actually within South Asia and there others, China, the US and the USSR, that are extra-regional players in the region. South Asia also contains other states with minimal military and economical power; Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. By virtue of their global status, the US and the USSR have been involved in South Asia until 1990s. South Asian Countries are often introduced by political instability, a relative diffusion of powers and slow economic development. These characteristics and weakness prompted the two superpowers to fill the apparent power vacuum and to change it in order to strengthen their respective global and regional policies (Ganguly S. 1999.) South Asia has been usually been regarded as only marginally important to the United States. In the major American security decisions regarding the stability of the international system, maintenance of nuclear balance or the problem of war and peace, South Asia was not considered a determining factor. Some reasons can be traced behind less priority of US to South Asia   First, it was not vital strategically; it did not offer any major resources essential to American industry. Second, the low level of economic and political interaction could not generate a positive image of South Asia in the American mind. In American perceptions, the area remained a preserve of British interests. Thus, US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic (R.Arthur, 2006.) The central dilemma of US policy in South Asia since 1947 has been to deal with the competing claims of the two principal states of this region, India and Pakistan. In a sense, the constant dilemma of Americas South Asia Policy is a result of the regional contest between these two states.Of these two Sub continental states, if India was often a unimportant factor in US perception of the global strategic equation, Pakistan was an insignificant factor unless military aligned with the US. The initial US involvement in South Asia was barely influenced by the regional developments.  What did shape the US role was the shrinking British Empire and the rapid decline of the KMT regime in China. Succeeding US military links to South Asia (especially Pakistan), a subsidiary of its concern in relation to the Soviet Union, accidentally emphasized the level of hostility between India and Pakistan. US involvement not only annoyed India but also brought the Soviet Union and later China into the Subcontinent and made the region an arena of Cold war politics (Ganguly S, 1990.) In many ways, US involvement in India started during World War II, before this both officials and unofficial contacts with India were minimal. While the US maintained a few consular officers in India to look after commercial interests, it relied largely on British Foreign Office communications for information on the Indian political situation. The US really became involved in South Asia after its entry into World War II. British India served at that time as a spring –board for allied military operations against the Japanese in China and Southeast Asia. India’s relations with the Unites States have been described variously as ‘estranged democracies’ and distance powers by Americans. Indian have tended to describe it as ‘distanced democracies’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’. Another common refrain often articulated from India, describes the United States as the oldest and most powerful democracy and itself as the largest. The expectation from both sides appears to have been that ‘democracy’ will somehow transcend national interests and security imperatives and shape the relationship (B.Dipankar, 2006.) Relations between India and the US have varied widely over the last sixty-five years and adopted a roller-coaster character with many ups and downs and high and lows. In recent years India –US relations has transformed into what both sides claim to be a strategic partnership. Even as both countries move towards that desirable goal, it is useful to recall that divergences in perceptions and policies have varied widely over the years. At the end of the Second World War the Unites States emerged as the undisputed leader of the free world. Its lead in almost every area of consequence remains unchallenged for decades. All its possible peers were largely destroyed by the war and indeed needed Washington’s help to revive themselves. The United States did not just dominate the emerging world order, but had the opportunity to shape it by laying out its figures and establishing the international institutions that would determine its future. Within a few years of the War’s end, the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc emerged as the only group that could conceivably challenge this order, but only in a limited military sense. For India, the immediate concerns were different. It was to emerge from colonialism and external domination as an independent entity. It had first to fully assert its independence, in which it only got success partially as the nation itself was split into India and Pakistan addressing the region to internal conflict for decades. India’s identity and nationalism had to be developed an additional based on its own values and heritage and its territories needed to be consolidated. In addition to these concerns, a modern state had to be created almost from the beginning with all its associated institutions. (C. Raja Mohan 2003) To achieve these immediate goals, India needed a peaceful external environment, uncomplicated by the rivalries of the global power struggle. New Delhi needed to craft a policy that would provide it a meaningful and autonomous role in a future world, in keeping with its own size potential and aspiration. In accordance with these needs it choose a policy of ‘non-alignment’. The term itself was much misunderstood in the world, and particularly in the US. India, perhaps justifiably, never fully explained its position, leading many in the west to ask, ‘non-aligned against what; good and evil?’(R.Bahukutumbi, 1996.) What Nehru opined was a policy that would enable India to take independent positions on international issues without being tied down by alliances and ideological constraints. The central theme was not to get drawn in to military entanglements with major powers. He also hoped this would open up the possibility for India to adopt a position of some leadership of the emerging world. Many practical difficulties emerged, which hindered the implementations of this policy over the years. Over time, other countries also decided to remain ‘non-aligned’. On global issues, non-alignment often meant aligning against the west. Overall this policy prohibited the possibility of a military relationship with any country or grouping. This policy, and differences in world view, became a major barrier to an Indo-US military relationship throughout the Cold War (Ganguly S, 1990.) Indo-US diplomatic relations go back to the presidency of George Washington when Benjamin Joy was appointed to the position of US Consul in Calcutta, the then Indian Capital in 1792. Nothing of note happened until April 1941. When Girija Shakar Bajpai was appointed the first Agent General of India in Washington DC and Thomas Wilson shifted as US Commissioner from Calcutta to New Delhi. At that time President Roosevelt understood that a successful pursuit of the war against the Axis powers required India’s willing support and cooperation. Roosevelt’s support for Indian independence and concern about continuing British rule had left a favourable impression on Indians (Chari PR 1999.) Churchill’s refusal to contemplate a serious change in British imperial policy compelled the Indian National Congress to launch the Quit India movement in 1942. The Congress leaders believed that only an India that was promised freedom after the war could voluntarily join the war against fascism. Instead, the British responded by locking up most senior Congress political leaders. In spite of this, India’s participation in the Second World War was remarkable by any standards. Over two and a half million soldiers, each a volunteer, fought with Allied armies in many of the major threats of the global conflict. This contribution was particularly salient in the Burma front, without which the outcome would have been considerably less certain. In addition to the roughly half-million soldiers from India and the British Commonwealth in this theatre, the Allied forces were joined by troops representing the Nationalist Chinese, many Africans and, by the war’s end, some 250,000 US soldiers (Sigh 2005.) This enormous US troop contribution was easily its largest military-to-military relationship in South Asia. US forces provided the bulk of logistics support, flew substantial numbers of air sorties across uncharted routes in unstable aircraft, and ensured that the Kuomintang forces remained in the war against Japan in China. In addition, there was also the enormous Brooklyn air conditioning plant near Kolkata, the largest in Asia at the time that stored and supplied food to all Allied forces in the East (Banerjee, D 2000.) It might have been expected that this state relations would continue after Indian independence. Instead, the Cold war intervened. India was partitioned and a separate state, Pakistan came into existence in 1947. During the Cold War, the pressure of strategic imperatives often widened the disjuncture between the hope and the reality resulting in hurtful Indo-US relations. The US support to Pakistan on the Jammu and Kashmir dispute in the United Nations in 1948-49, and initiation of military support to Pakistan in 1954, shed a binding shadow on the relationship. The United States wanted to join as many states as possible in its war against communism, often in a formal strategic relationship. India viewed the logic of American alliances as directly breaking its own interests. India was convinced that American military support had encouraged Pakistan to wage war against it in 1965. This happened again during Indo-Pak war in 1971, when the US gave warnings to India and sent the USS Enterprise of its 7th Fleet into the Bay of Bengal. The United States perceived India’s policy of non-alignment as self-righteous and considered its neutrality far from neutral, citing examples of its silence over the Soviet invasion of Hungary and Czechosloskavia in 1968 (Dasgupta 2002.) In mid 1961 India agreed to buy the MiG-21 aircraft from the Soviet Union. This was offered on such munificent terms that neither Great Britain, nor France nor the US could come up with a comparable offer even if they wanted to match it. Thus, began a long and enduring Indo-Soviet arms relationship (Ganguly S, 1990.) The very strong Indian reaction to the evolving Pakistan-US military alliance was perhaps not anticipated in Washington. In any case, by now India’s image in the US had plunged and New Delhi‘s concerns were not a factor in US decision making. Indo-US relations remained frozen in a sate of suspended hostility until 1962. The Chinese aggression on India in Oct-Nov 1962 led to a remarkable turn around in Indo-US relations. The attack from Chinese side surprised and shocked the Indian leaders. A total of two Indian infantry divisions, or less than ten percent of the Indian combat force, faced a thoroughly prepared PLA. The Indian forces were totally unprepared, badly deployed, under-equipped and even without proper clothes. The defeat was total in terms of India’s political standing and its foreign policy. What is notable was the dramatic shift in Indian policy and the liberal military and political support that India received from the US and the West. None of India’s non-aligned partners provided help and few showed any sympathy. Moscow actually temporarily halted the MiG program, siding instead with its socialist friend.  In contrast, the US came through with substantial help. A considerably larger arms package of US $ 373 million was apparently worked out by November 1963 in Washington by Ambassador Chester Bowles and was to have been signed by President Kennedy on 26th of November, 1963. Kennedy said; We should defend India, and therefore